The Berwick witch trials, which took place in the late 16th century in Scotland, are one of the most infamous episodes in the history of witch hunts. These trials not only reflect the widespread fear of witchcraft that gripped Europe at the time but also highlight the gendered nature of such accusations, where women were disproportionately targeted and oppressed. The trials were marked by extreme brutality, spurred by political and religious motives, and resulted in the persecution and execution of many, most of whom were women.

The Berwick witch trials began in 1590 when King James VI of Scotland (later James I of England) returned from Denmark with his new bride, Anne of Denmark. During the sea voyage, the royal couple encountered severe storms, which were later attributed to witchcraft. James, who had already been influenced by witch-hunting fervour in Denmark, became convinced that a group of witches in Scotland had conspired to kill him by summoning the storms. This belief set the stage for one of the most extensive and brutal witch hunts in Scottish history.

Central to the trials was the case of Agnes Sampson, a midwife and healer from the village of Nether Keith. Sampson was accused of being part of a coven that had attempted to murder the king by conjuring the storm. Despite her respected position in the community, Sampson was subjected to horrific torture, including being deprived of sleep, shaved of all body hair to reveal supposed “witch’s marks,” and a device known as “the bridle” was placed in her mouth—a painful iron instrument that prevented her from speaking or eating. Under this intense duress, she confessed to the charges against her. She claimed that she had met the Devil in person, who appeared to her as a dog, and that she had taken part in rituals intended to harm the king. After being convicted, Sampson was strangled and then burned at the stake, a common fate for those found guilty of witchcraft in Scotland.

Another prominent figure in the trials was Gellis Duncan, a young servant girl who worked in the household of David Seaton, a local bailiff. Duncan was initially suspected of witchcraft due to her sudden healing abilities, which she claimed were the result of divine inspiration. Her employer, however, was suspicious and accused her of witchcraft. Duncan was tortured with the “pilliwinks” (thumbscrews) and had a rope twisted around her head to extract a confession. She eventually confessed to witchcraft, naming several other women who were also subsequently arrested and accused. Duncan’s confession led to the arrest and execution of many others, showcasing how fear and superstition could rapidly spread, with one accusation leading to a cascade of others.

The trials also targeted a woman named Euphamia MacCalzean, the daughter of a prominent judge. Her case was particularly significant because it demonstrated how even women of high social standing were not immune to accusations of witchcraft. MacCalzean was accused of being a member of the supposed witch coven and was implicated in the storm-raising conspiracy. Despite her status, she was convicted and burned alive—a punishment reserved for those deemed to be the most heinous of witches. Her death highlighted the deep-rooted misogyny of the time, where women, regardless of their social class, could be easily targeted and vilified.

The Berwick witch trials were deeply laced with issues of gender and power. The overwhelming majority of the accused were women, reflecting the pervasive belief that women were more susceptible to the Devil’s influence. This belief was rooted in the misogynistic views of the time, which portrayed women as morally weaker, more deceitful, and more likely to engage in sinful behaviour. These views were reinforced by religious and political authorities who saw the suppression of alleged witches as a way to maintain social order and control.

The trials also served as a tool of oppression, particularly against women who defied social norms or who held positions of relative power or independence, such as midwives, healers, or women who were outspoken. These women were often viewed with suspicion and were easy targets for accusations of witchcraft, especially in times of social or economic upheaval. The trials allowed the authorities to reinforce patriarchal norms by punishing and controlling women who stepped outside of their prescribed roles.

The Berwick witch trials did not occur in isolation but were part of a broader European trend of witch hunts, driven by religious conflict, political instability, and social anxiety. However, the role of King James VI was particularly significant. His personal involvement in the interrogations, and his subsequent publication of “Daemonologie,” a treatise on witchcraft in (1597), which supported the prosecution of witches and influenced witch hunts across Scotland and England. helped to legitimise and spread the persecution of alleged witches. James’s actions reflected and reinforced the existing gender biases of the time, making the Berwick witch trials a particularly brutal chapter in the history of the oppression of women.

The North Berwick witch trials highlight the gendered nature of witch hunts. The majority of those accused were women, reflecting the widespread belief that women were more susceptible to the Devil’s influence. This belief was rooted in misogynistic views that portrayed women as morally weaker and more prone to sin. The trials also served as a means of controlling and punishing women who were perceived as stepping outside their prescribed societal roles, such as midwives and healers.

The trials resulted in the execution of around 70 to 100 individuals, most of whom were women. The North Berwick witch trials set a precedent for future witch hunts in Scotland and contributed to the broader European witch-hunting fervour of the time. The events at North Berwick are remembered as a dark chapter in Scotland’s history, where fear, superstition, and gendered oppression led to the persecution of many innocent people.

The North Berwick witch trials were a tragic example of how fear and superstition, combined with deeply ingrained gender biases, led to the brutal persecution of women. The trials were a reflection of the societal and political anxieties of the time, with witchcraft accusations used as a tool to oppress and control those who were seen as a threat to the established order. The legacy of these trials continues to serve as a reminder of the dangers of allowing fear and prejudice to dictate justice.

This article is dedicated to the memory of the people who payed the highest price on the whim of others. The full list of the accused in the North Berwick witch trials is not completely documented, as records from that period are often incomplete or lost. Sadly, there are too many and records are too scarce to record every soul who perished for being different or clever, stronger or seen as ‘a threat’ by a deluded but powerful man.

Agnes Sampson:

• A respected midwife and healer from Nether Keith. She was one of the central figures in the trials and was accused of witchcraft, tortured, and ultimately executed by strangulation and burning.

Gillis Duncan:

• A young servant girl whose employer, David Seaton, accused her of witchcraft. Under torture, she confessed and named several other alleged witches. Her case significantly expanded the scope of the trials.

Euphemia MacCalzean:

• The daughter of a prominent judge. She was accused of participating in the storm-raising conspiracy against King James VI and was burned at the stake, a punishment reserved for the most severe cases of witchcraft.

Dr. John Fian (alias John Cunningham):

• A schoolmaster from Prestonpans who was accused of being the leader of the coven. He was tortured severely, including being subjected to the “boots,” an instrument designed to crush the legs, but he later recanted his confession. Despite this, he was executed by strangulation and burning.

Barbara Napier:

• A well-connected woman and a widow of a wealthy Edinburgh man, she was accused of witchcraft and being part of the conspiracy. Her initial sentence was delayed due to her pregnancy, but she was eventually executed.

Agnes Tompson (or Thompson):

• Another key figure in the trials, Agnes was accused of being part of the coven that raised the storms against King James. Like others, she was tortured into confessing and was subsequently executed.

Robert Grierson:

• A former servant of the Earl of Bothwell (who was also implicated but not convicted), Grierson was accused of witchcraft and being involved in the conspiracy against the king. He was also executed.

Effie McCalyan (likely a variation of Euphemia MacCalzean):

• Another name in the records, likely referring to Euphemia MacCalzean, accused and executed for her involvement.

Richard Graham:

• A conjuror and alleged necromancer, he was implicated in the conspiracy and tried alongside the others. His fate was similar to that of the others, ending in execution.

Barbara Napier:

• She was accused of witchcraft and of being complicit in the plot against King James. Despite her noble connections, she was convicted and sentenced to death.